The Septuagint and Modern Scholarship

The Septuagint (often abbreviated as LXX) is the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, traditionally said to have been produced in the 3rd century BC for the Jewish community in Alexandria. It holds immense significance not only for biblical studies but also for the history of Judaism, early Christianity, and the development of the Greek language. Modern scholarship continues to analyze its textual traditions, linguistic features, and theological implications.

The study of the Septuagint provides insight into the textual transmission of the Hebrew Bible, the religious world of Hellenistic Judaism, and the ways in which early Christians interpreted the Old Testament. This article explores the origins of the LXX, its historical development, textual variations, its role in the New Testament, and its ongoing importance in biblical studies today.

The Origins of the Septuagint

The traditional account of the Septuagint’s origins is recorded in the Letter of Aristeas, a document from the Hellenistic period. According to this story, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC) commissioned seventy-two Jewish scholars to translate the Torah (the first five books of the Bible) into Greek for the famous Library of Alexandria. The name “Septuagint” (meaning “seventy”) derives from this tradition, though the actual number of translators remains uncertain.

While the Letter of Aristeas is more legend than historical fact, scholars agree that the  Greek Pentateuch was translated in Alexandria during the 3rd century BC. The translation of other books followed over the next two centuries, though they were not necessarily completed as a unified project. The LXX thus represents a collection of Greek translations rather than a single work created at one time.

The Linguistic and Cultural Context of the LXX

The Septuagint was produced in a period when Hellenistic culture was dominant across the Mediterranean, and Greek had become the lingua franca of the Jewish Diaspora. Many Jews outside of Judea spoke Greek as their primary language and required a translation of their sacred texts.

The translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek brought about linguistic challenges. Some Hebrew words had no direct Greek equivalents, leading translators to adopt various strategies:

  • Literal Translation: In some books, the translators aimed to preserve the Hebrew structure as closely as possible, even when it resulted in awkward Greek.
  • Dynamic Equivalence: In other cases, they rendered idiomatic expressions more fluently in Greek, sometimes interpreting the meaning rather than translating word for word.
  • Borrowed Vocabulary: Certain Hebrew religious terms were transliterated rather than translated (e.g., “Sabbath” as Σάββατον, “Passover” as Πάσχα).

These linguistic features make the LXX a valuable resource for scholars studying the evolution of biblical Hebrew, the development of Koine Greek, and the interaction between Jewish and Greek thought.

Textual Variants and Differences from the Hebrew Bible

One of the most significant aspects of the Septuagint is its textual variations when compared to the traditional Hebrew text (the Masoretic Text, or MT). Some differences include:

  • Additional Material: The LXX contains extra passages not found in the MT, such as the longer version of Esther and the additional sections in Daniel (the Prayer of Azariah, Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon).
  • Rearranged Content: Some books appear in a different order or structure. For example, Jeremiah in the LXX is shorter and has a different arrangement of chapters.
  • Different Readings: Certain verses in the LXX differ significantly from the MT, suggesting that the translators were working from a different Hebrew Vorlage (base text) or interpreting the text in light of contemporary concerns.

The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in the mid-20th century, have confirmed that some of the readings found in the LXX reflect ancient Hebrew manuscripts that diverged from the MT. This discovery has reinforced the importance of the LXX as a witness to early biblical texts.

The Septuagint and Early Christianity

The Septuagint played a crucial role in the formation of early Christian theology. Since many early Christians spoke Greek, the LXX was their primary version of the Old Testament. The New Testament authors frequently quoted from the LXX rather than the MT, which sometimes led to significant theological interpretations.

Examples of LXX influence in the New Testament:

  • Matthew 1:23 (Isaiah 7:14) – The Gospel of Matthew quotes the LXX’s rendering of Isaiah 7:14: “Behold, a virgin (παρθένος) shall conceive and bear a son.” The Hebrew text uses עַלְמָה (*ʿalmah*), meaning “young woman,” whereas the LXX uses the Greek word for “virgin,” shaping Christian understandings of the prophecy.
  • Hebrews 1:6 (Deuteronomy 32:43) – The author of Hebrews cites a line from Deuteronomy that appears in the LXX but is absent from the MT: “Let all God’s angels worship him.”
  • Acts 15:16-18 (Amos 9:11-12) – James in Acts 15 quotes the LXX version of Amos, which differs from the MT and supports the inclusion of Gentiles in the Church.

The preference for the LXX among early Christians eventually led to disputes with Jewish communities, which increasingly emphasized the Masoretic Text as their authoritative version.

The Septuagint and Modern Biblical Studies

In contemporary biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is studied for various reasons:

  • Textual Criticism: The LXX helps scholars reconstruct the earliest forms of the Hebrew Bible by comparing it to the MT and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
  • Historical Linguistics: The translation sheds light on the transition from Biblical Hebrew to Koine Greek and how Jewish translators understood their sacred texts.
  • Theology and Exegesis: The differences between the LXX and MT reveal interpretive trends in Hellenistic Judaism and the theological priorities of early Christians.

Several modern projects are dedicated to LXX research, including:

  • The Göttingen Septuagint: A critical edition of the LXX that aims to reconstruct its earliest text.
  • The New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS): A modern English translation based on scholarly editions of the LXX.
  • The International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies (IOSCS): A scholarly association promoting LXX research.

Implications for Biblical Canon and Theology

The Septuagint also raises questions about the biblical canon. Many books considered deuterocanonical in Catholic and Orthodox traditions (e.g., Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch) are found in the LXX but not in the MT. This has influenced the differences between Jewish, Protestant, and Catholic biblical canons.

Moreover, the LXX’s theological interpretations influenced Christian doctrines, particularly regarding messianic prophecy, the nature of God, and eschatology.

Enduring Influence of the Septuagint

The Septuagint remains a cornerstone of biblical studies, bridging the gap between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. It reflects the linguistic, cultural, and theological interactions of the ancient Mediterranean world. Its textual variants, its role in early Christianity, and its continued use in Eastern Orthodox traditions make it an essential subject for scholars and students alike.

As modern research advances, the LXX continues to offer profound insights into the transmission, interpretation, and impact of biblical texts, ensuring its relevance for generations to come.