New Testament (NT) Greek and Septuagint (LXX) Greek share many linguistic characteristics but also display differences due to their origins, purposes, and contexts. Here’s a detailed analysis of these differences and similarities across several aspects:
1. Historical Background and Context
Septuagint (LXX) Greek: The Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament), was produced in Alexandria around the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE. The translation was primarily intended for Greek-speaking Jews who no longer spoke Hebrew. Its language is a mix of Hebrew syntax and Greek vocabulary, often making it more literal and Hebraic in structure, but this varies among books. For example, some books (like Proverbs) are translated less literally and adapted to fit Greek idiomatic expressions, while others closely mirror Hebrew structures.
New Testament (NT) Greek: The New Testament was written primarily between the mid-1st century and early 2nd century CE. It was directed at a broader audience that included both Jews and Gentiles. NT Greek, sometimes referred to as “Koine” Greek, is generally more idiomatic and natural, reflecting the language spoken by common people of the time. However, the NT also displays variety among its authors: while some texts, like Luke and Hebrews, are relatively sophisticated, others, like Mark, use simpler structures. This diversity in NT Greek reflects the flexibility of Koine as a medium.
2. Linguistic Style and Idioms
Literal vs. Idiomatic: LXX Greek is often more literal in its translation from Hebrew, resulting in awkward Greek expressions that mirror Hebrew syntax. However, this is not uniform across all books. Some LXX books, particularly the Pentateuch, remain closely literal to preserve the Hebrew’s religious connotations, while others allow for Greek idioms. NT Greek, by contrast, is generally more idiomatic and often adapts to common Greek language patterns. Yet, in some passages, especially when quoting or alluding to Scripture, NT authors reflect Hebraisms, particularly in texts like Matthew and Hebrews.
Semitic Influence: While the LXX has a strong Semitic influence, NT Greek also includes Hebraisms, particularly in the Gospels and certain epistles. This influence is seen in phrasing, idiomatic expressions, and thought patterns that carry over from Jewish tradition and thought. NT Greek thus occupies a middle ground between idiomatic Greek and Hebraic expressions, preserving the Jewish cultural background of the authors while adapting to the vernacular of their audience.
3. Vocabulary and Word Usage
Shared Vocabulary: Both the NT and LXX share extensive vocabulary, particularly for religious and theological terms (e.g., ἀγάπη/agape for “love,” θεός/theos for “God”). This shared vocabulary reflects the LXX’s influence on NT authors, who frequently drew on the Septuagint for Old Testament quotations and theological language. The LXX’s theological terms, developed within a Jewish religious framework, were often expanded in the NT to address emerging Christian theology.
Unique Vocabulary: Some words in the NT are absent in the LXX, reflecting Hellenistic ideas or theological developments unique to early Christianity. For instance, “εὐαγγέλιον” (gospel) gains new significance as the proclamation of Christ’s message. Conversely, certain LXX terms are rare in the NT, reflecting the distinct cultural context of the Hebrew Scriptures. The NT’s vocabulary development thus reflects both continuity with and innovation upon Jewish theological language.
4. Grammar and Syntax
Morphology: Both the NT and LXX employ Koine Greek morphology, though the LXX sometimes includes older or more literary forms due to its aim of mirroring Hebrew structures. This effect is particularly visible in texts like the Pentateuch and the Psalms, where Hebrew poetic and legal forms are adapted into Greek.
Syntax: LXX Greek syntax often mirrors Hebrew syntax, leading to complex or redundant structures. However, not all LXX texts follow this pattern uniformly. The NT’s syntax is usually more streamlined, especially in narratives like the Gospels and Acts, though Paul’s epistles contain complex structures that approach classical Greek rhetoric. The NT’s grammar and syntax reflect the diversity of its authors, with some books exhibiting polished Greek style and others leaning toward simpler, conversational forms.
5. Theological Language and Terms
Theological Terminology: The LXX laid much of the groundwork for theological terms later used in the NT. Words like “δικαιοσύνη” (righteousness), “σωτηρία” (salvation), and “πνεῦμα” (spirit) were developed with nuanced meanings in the LXX, meanings that NT authors adopted and expanded upon to express Christian theology.
Christological Language: NT Greek reflects theological developments not present in the LXX, especially concerning Christology and soteriology. Terms like “Χριστός” (Christ, Messiah) take on a central and defined meaning in the NT, signaling theological shifts that aligned with Christian beliefs. Words such as “εὐαγγέλιον” (gospel) gain a broader theological significance, connecting directly to the NT message of salvation through Christ.
6. Quotations and Paraphrases
Direct Quotations: The NT frequently quotes the LXX, especially in the Gospels and Paul’s letters. NT writers often adhere to the LXX wording, though they may occasionally paraphrase or modify quotations to suit their context. In some cases, these adaptations highlight theological points through subtle alterations.
Use of Masoretic Text (MT): While the NT primarily uses the LXX, there are instances where quotations or allusions align more closely with the Hebrew Masoretic Text. These instances are rare and seem to be deliberate, serving to emphasize particular theological ideas. The NT’s use of both the LXX and MT reflects its authors’ intent to communicate Jewish concepts to a mixed audience.
7. Textual Variations and Translation Philosophy
Translation Philosophy: The LXX translators often aimed to reflect Hebrew texts closely, but their translation philosophy varies. While some books (like the Pentateuch) are almost word-for-word, others (like Wisdom literature) use a more dynamic approach. NT writers, on the other hand, adapted LXX quotations with flexibility, sometimes for doctrinal emphasis, other times for clarity, reflecting interpretive approaches common in Jewish exegesis (pesher).
Textual Variations: Since the LXX is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, it sometimes differs from the Hebrew MT. These variations occasionally result in NT citations of the OT that differ from modern Hebrew-based versions, indicating that NT authors chose readings from the LXX that resonated with their theological points. This selective use highlights the NT’s interpretive approach to Scripture.
8. Dialects and Lexicon Evolution
Dialects: Both the NT and LXX are written in Koine Greek, yet the NT reflects a broader, more evolved version of the language as it had spread across the Hellenistic world. The NT’s dialect is more uniform and colloquial, showing how Koine Greek had unified regional dialects.
Lexicon Evolution: Over centuries, some Greek words evolved in meaning, especially those with religious or philosophical connotations. The NT occasionally reflects this evolution, using terms like “εὐαγγέλιον” (gospel) in ways that diverge from the LXX. This reflects an adaptation of Koine to new theological contexts, bridging Jewish tradition with the Christian message.
Summary
In summary, both the LXX and NT Greek share the foundation of Koine Greek, shaped by Hellenistic culture, yet display nuanced differences. The LXX often mirrors Hebrew syntax and vocabulary, aiming for fidelity to Hebrew sources. The NT, while also drawing heavily on LXX vocabulary and theological terms, adapts the language to reflect the idiomatic and theological demands of its broader audience, resulting in a dynamic form of Koine Greek that builds on LXX language to articulate early Christian doctrine. This flexible approach makes NT Greek more accessible while allowing it to resonate with the theological depth of the Hebrew Scriptures.